Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement, Classical Conditioning Connections, and Real life Examples

B.F. Skinner and his achievements

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was an American psychologist born on 20 March 1904. He was a professor at Harvard University from 1958 to 1974. He gained popularity after his concept of reinforcement in the field of education. He also used operant conditioning to strengthen behavior, considering the rate of response to be the most effective measure of response strength.

He was also an inventor. He invented the Skinner box, air crib, teaching machine, and programmed instruction, which was a new approach in the field of teaching-learning.

We can say that Skinner, John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov, are considered to be the pioneers of modern behaviorism. A survey stated that Skinner is the most influential psychologist of the 20th century.

Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant Conditioning Theory, given by B.F. Skinner shares some similarities with Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory. However, a key difference lies in the role of the learner. In Operant Conditioning, the learner is active and important, whereas in Classical Conditioning, the learner passively waits for something to happen before responding.

In Classical Conditioning, a stimulus is necessary for a response; without it, the learner cannot respond. For example, Pavlov’s dog salivated only when food or a signal for food was presented. In contrast, Skinner argues that a stimulus is not required for a response. Humans, as intelligent and free creatures, do not wait for something to happen before responding. Instead, they initiate behavior independently.

According to Skinner, humans and animals constantly interact with their environment, influencing it through their actions. The environmental response then determines whether the behavior will be repeated. If the response is favorable, the behavior is likely to recur; if unfavorable, the individual will avoid repeating it. This type of behavior is called operant conditioning.

Consider this story to illustrate the concept:

During school assembly, a girl named Tanu complimented her teacher, saying, “Madam, you look pretty in that saree.” However, her teacher reacted angrily, saying, “Don’t dare say that! You’re a student and shouldn’t call me pretty.” Following this incident, Tanu never complimented any teacher again and began maintaining distance from them.

In this example, the teacher’s negative response led to Tanu’s change in behavior. This demonstrates operant conditioning in action.

Also known as Instrumental Conditioning or Skinnerian Conditioning, Operant Conditioning Theory highlights the significance of environmental responses in shaping behavior.

Skinner Experiments:

Skinner conducted numerous experiments on birds and animals before developing the theory of operant conditioning. His experiments on pigeons and rats are widely recognized.

Skinner box:

Skinner designed a specialized box, initially called the operant conditioning chamber, specifically for his rat experiments. Later, his students coined the term “Skinner box.” Today, this box is commonly referred to by the same name in educational psychology. Interestingly, it was inspired by Thorndike cat puzzle box.

The Skinner box features several key components:

• A grid floor
• Light and sound arrangements
• A lever
• A food cup

When the lever is pressed, food is dispensed into the cup, with the sound and light. To record observations, the lever is connected to a writing system that tracks the frequency of presses on a cumulative graph.

Experiment:

A hungry rat is placed in the box and initially moves around restlessly, making random movements. Eventually, its leg accidentally presses the lever, triggering food release with sound and light. After consuming the food, the rat repeats this action, quickly learning that pressing the lever yields food. In this context, food serves as reinforcement, strengthening the behavior.

Similarly, in the pigeon experiment, the bird engages in random actions until accidentally pressing a key with its beak, releasing food into a bowl. After just a few attempts, the pigeon learns to press the specific key to obtain the food.

Note: An important observation is that the time between attempts decreases significantly.

After analyzing the results, Skinner formulated the theory of operant conditioning. This theory says that operant conditioning is a process that increases and strengthens the frequency of repeated behavior. it doesn’t require a stimulus to elicit a response. Skinner prioritised response over stimulus, referring to his theory as R-type conditioning and using the R-S formula instead of S-R because according to Skinner, the desired response is conditioned through repetitive reinforcement.

Operant Behaviour:

Operant behaviour is not in the control of the learner, and its nature is voluntary. Playing with toys, moving hands and feet, and eating food are examples of operant behaviour. Results are important for operant behaviour instead of reason.

R-type Conditioning:

R-type conditioning is related to desirable actions. This type of conditioning is based on Skinner’s theory, which emphasizes the importance of reinforcement.

Reinforcement:

Reinforcement refers to presenting something on the basis of a desirable response, which ensures the repetition of actions. For example, giving a toffee to the students every time they solve a sum correctly, or praising a boy for cleaning his room every time he does so.

Types of Reinforcement:

There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement is pleasant and blissful. It includes praise, money, smile, stars, and gifts, among others.

Negative Reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant state of affairs so that the desirable response can occur. For example, closing the door to avoid noise, opening the window to avoid suffocation in the class, or turning off the television to avoid distraction during teaching younger siblings. When we remove an undesirable stimulus to get the desirable response, it is known as negative reinforcement.

We can understand it more clearly with an example:

Suraj, a fourth-class teacher, became concerned when he saw that during his English class the electricity went out and the class became unbearably hot . All the students started sweating; nobody was interested in the chapter anymore. So, he decided to take them to the school garden to avoid the distraction. He took them to the garden and completed his chapter with his students’ active participation.

Note: Skinner did not relate punishment with negative reinforcement. Punishment is not included in either positive or negative reinforcement.

Timings Schedule of Reinforcement:

1. Continuous Reinforcement:

In this type, we give reinforcement after every desired response. For example, clapping on every right answer given by the students.

2. Fixed Interval Reinforcement:

The interval of time is fixed, and reinforcement is given only after the interval. For example, praising your students after every 15 minutes.

3. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement:

Here, the ratio of responses is fixed. We give reinforcement after every 2 or 3 right answers, not on every right answer. For example, giving a toffee after every 5 questions in mathematics.

4. Variable Reinforcement:

When the reinforcement is given after varying intervals of time and varying ratios of responses, it is called variable reinforcement. For example, in the starting of the class, praising the students on every right answer they give, then only after 4-5 right answers and clapping for the weak students on giving the right answers.

Note: Variable reinforcement is most favorable in the class.

Skinner also introduced several key terms:

Shaping:

Shaping is the most widely used process in operant conditioning. It involves the judicious use of selected reinforcement to bring about desirable changes in behavior. A child’s response is shaped towards desired behavior. For example, after coming home from school, you want to teach your child to take out the empty lunchbox from their bag and put it in the sink. To shape this behavior, you give them chocolate every time they put their lunchbox in the sink. Here, chocolate serves as a reinforcer.

This technique is commonly used in various countries to train birds and animals to exhibit desired behaviors or learn specific skills. For instance, to teach a pigeon to walk in the style of the number 8, millet is arranged in the shape of the number 8, and the pigeon follows this pattern to eat the food, learning to walk in the desired style. Similarly, training a dog to sit on a toilet seat involves giving treats to reinforce this behavior.‌

Chaining:

Chaining refers to the process where the reinforcement of a response given in front of a stimulus also acts as a stimulus for the next response. Essentially, chaining is a process that utilizes operant conditioning to teach a series of behaviors to achieve a specific objective.

For example, when a child learns to write on paper with a pencil, they first learn to grasp the pencil, then hold it gradually, and eventually learn to control their hand movements in coordination with their fingers. When teaching a child to wash their hands, you start by teaching them to open the faucet, rather than immediately using soap and water.

There is always a series of patterned behaviors that must be learned to achieve the desired behavior. You cannot skip or rearrange the steps; this is known as chaining the behavior.

Criticism:

Although Skinner’s theory is detailed and effective, it has several limitations:

1. Skinner believed that reinforcement is essential for learning desired behavior, but this is not always necessary. We can learn without reinforcement. For instance, if someone enjoys history, they don’t require treats or praise to continue studying.Similarly, if a child loves solving math problems, he won’t wait for his teacher’s reward; he will start solving problems and continue until he stop.
2. Many psychologists argue that Skinner’s operant conditioning theory is insufficient to fully describe the nature of student learning.
3. Skinner prioritised external motivation, such as praise, awards, smiles, and money, while neglecting the importance of internal motivation, which can serve as a powerful reinforcer.
4. Humans use their minds to accomplish tasks and don’t solely respond to training. Skinner’s ideas focus on training, but humans don’t learn everything through training.
5. He failed to acknowledge the importance of internal mental processes, such as emotions, mental states, likes, and dislikes. If a child is crying, offering a treat won’t facilitate learning; their readiness, interest, and attitude toward the subject are essential.
6. Another weakness of his theory is its attempt to explain individual behavior solely through observable phenomena.
7. Skinner also neglected the importance of social norms, laws, and morals in shaping learner behavior.
8. His theory emphasizes learning without understanding, as learners may focus on receiving rewards rather than comprehending the material.
9. Today’s education discourages rote learning, yet Skinner’s theory promotes learning without motivation, essentially advocating for rote learning.

Educational Implications:

Skinner’s operant conditioning theory has several significant implications for education:

•  Clearly defined learning objectives: Learning objectives should be explicitly stated in terms of behavior, ensuring students understand what is expected of them.
• Structured learning materials: Learning materials should be organized in a simple-to-complex manner, facilitating gradual understanding and mastery.
• Timely reinforcement: The theory emphasizes that delayed reinforcement can undermine its effectiveness. Therefore, reinforcement should be administered immediately after the desired behavior is exhibited.
• Behavior modification through rewards: Operant conditioning can be leveraged to modify behavior, strengthening desired actions through rewards.
• Varied reinforcement: Reinforcement should vary in type, timing, and frequency to maintain effectiveness and prevent habituation.
• Removal of negative reinforcers: Eliminating negative reinforcers can foster desirable learning outcomes.
• Personality development: Operant conditioning can shape an individual’s personality through strategic reinforcement.
• Addressing social deviancy: The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to address social deviancy or undesirable behavior in children within the classroom setting.
• Programmed learning and teaching machines: The most important implication is the concept of programmed learning and the introduction of teaching machines in the teaching-learning process.

Programmed Learning:

Programmed learning is a system where content is broken down into smaller, manageable parts or frames, presented in a sequence. These small steps can be learned easily and quickly, with each step building upon the previous one. Reinforcement is provided after each step, enhancing the learning experience.

Programmed instruction gives several benefits:

– Useful for classroom and self-directed learning
– Individualized instructional strategy
– Effective and innovative approach in the teaching-learning process

Teaching Machine:

A teaching machine is a device that presents content in a predetermined sequence, allowing students to respond and receive immediate feedback. Suitable for self-learning, teaching machines can optimize the learning experience.

Note: The first teaching machine was invented by Sydney Pressey in 1926.

Skinner and Pavlov:

Here are some dissimilarities between the theory of classical conditioning by Pavlov and the theory of operant conditioning by Skinner.

Classical conditioning:

1. Developed by Ivan P.Pavlov.
2. Reinforcement comes first and response comes later.
3. Importance is given to stimulus.
4. This is a S-type conditioning.
5. Responses are elicited.
6. The chain is from S to R.
7. Unconditioned and conditioned response is same.
8. There is always a connection between stimulus and response.
9. Respondent behaviour is internal.
10. It is controlled by an autonomic nervous system.

Operant conditioning:

1. Developed by B.F. Skinner.
2. First comes the response And Reinforcement is given after that.
3. Importance is given to response not on stimulus.
4. This is a R- type conditioning.
5. The chain is from R to S.
6. Responses are emitted.
7. Conditioned and unconditioned response are different.
8. There is no correlation between stimulus and response.
9. Operant behaviour is external.
10. It is controlled by the central nervous system.